optic nerve hypoplasia

Microphthalmia, Syndromic 3

Clinical Characteristics
Ocular Features: 

Microphthalmia or clinical anophthalmia is the major ocular malformation in this disorder but optic nerve hypoplasia or even aplasia may also be present.  Colobomas and congenital cataracts may be seen.

Systemic Features: 

Esophageal atresia and sometimes tracheoesophageal fistula sometimes coexist. The ears can be low-set and malformed and sensorineural hearing loss is often present.  Facial palsy has been reported.  The penis may be small and combined with cryptorchidism while physical growth retardation is common.  Other less common malformations include cleft palate, vertebral anomalies, cardiac anomalies, body asymmetry, and microcephaly.  A few patients have had radiologically evident CNS malformations such as dilated ventricles, hippocampal hypoplasia, abnormal white matter, and holoprosencephaly.  However, intellectual development and function have been normal in other patients.

Genetics

This is an autosomal dominant disorder secondary to heterozygous mutations in the SOX2 gene (3q26.33).  Chromosomal aberrations involving this region of chromosome 3 have also been found.

Pedigree: 
Autosomal dominant
Treatment
Treatment Options: 

Depending upon the severity of malformations, life expectancy can be normal but some patients have died in the neonatal period.  Certain defects such as those of the heart, palate and esophagus can be surgically repaired.  Hearing device can be helpful but no treatment is available for the eyeball malformations.

References
Article Title: 

Microphthalmia, Syndromic 9

Clinical Characteristics
Ocular Features: 

Both microphthalmia and clinical anophthalmia have been described in this syndrome.  However, autopsy has shown true anophthalmia in a few cases who were stillborn or died in the neonatal period.  At least one eye can be cystic. The optic nerves are often hypoplastic and may be absent.  High, upward-arching eyebrows may be seen.

Systemic Features: 

An early manifestation of this disorder is neonatal pulmonary distress.  The lungs are usually hypoplastic or malformed. Cardiac malformations such as patent ductus arteriosus, septal and valvular defects, tetralogy of Fallot, and single ventricles are often present.  Diaphragmatic hernias or defects are common but hiatal hernias and frank eventration of abdominal contents have also been reported.  Renal anomalies and intrauterine growth retardation have been noted.         

Some infants have micrognathia, low-set ears, a broad nasal bridge, brachycephaly, and midline clefts of the palate.  Cerebral malformations are seldom present.

Genetics

Homozygous mutations in the STRA6 gene (15q24.1) have been found in a few cases which suggests autosomal recessive inheritance.  Parental consanguinity has been reported in some families.

Pedigree: 
Autosomal recessive
Treatment
Treatment Options: 

Treatment is directed at the repair of the organ defects in selected cases that have survival potential.   Survival rates are poor but those less severely affected may live for a decade.

References
Article Title: 

The PDAC syndrome (pulmonary hypoplasia/agenesis, diaphragmatic hernia/eventration, anophthalmia/microphthalmia, and cardiac defect) (Spear syndrome, Matthew-Wood syndrome): report of eight cases including a living child and further evidence for autosomal

Chitayat D, Sroka H, Keating S, Colby RS, Ryan G, Toi A, Blaser S, Viero S, Devisme L, Boute-B?(c)n?(c)jean O, Manouvrier-Hanu S, Mortier G, Loeys B, Rauch A, Bitoun P. The PDAC syndrome (pulmonary hypoplasia/agenesis, diaphragmatic hernia/eventration, anophthalmia/microphthalmia, and cardiac defect) (Spear syndrome, Matthew-Wood syndrome): report of eight cases including a living child and further evidence for autosomal recessive inheritance. Am J Med Genet A. 2007 Jun 15;143A(12):1268-81.

PubMed ID: 
17506106

Mutations in STRA6 cause a broad spectrum of malformations including anophthalmia, congenital heart defects, diaphragmatic hernia, alveolar capillary dysplasia, lung hypoplasia, and mental retardation

Pasutto F, Sticht H, Hammersen G, Gillessen-Kaesbach G, Fitzpatrick DR, N?ornberg G, Brasch F, Schirmer-Zimmermann H, Tolmie JL, Chitayat D, Houge G, Fern?degndez-Mart??nez L, Keating S, Mortier G, Hennekam RC, von der Wense A, Slavotinek A, Meinecke P, Bitoun P, Becker C, N?ornberg P, Reis A, Rauch A. Mutations in STRA6 cause a broad spectrum of malformations including anophthalmia, congenital heart defects, diaphragmatic hernia, alveolar capillary dysplasia, lung hypoplasia, and mental retardation. Am J Hum Genet. 2007 Mar;80(3):550-60.

PubMed ID: 
17273977

Septooptic Dysplasia

Clinical Characteristics
Ocular Features: 

Optic nerve hypoplasia is most characteristic ocular feature of this syndrome.  It may be bilateral but often is unilateral.  The hypoplastic nerve head can have a ‘double margin’.  The outer ring consists of the junction of the sclera with the lamina cribrosa while the inner margin is darker and represents the junction of the RPE with the abnormally small nerve containing less than the normal number of axons.  Visual acuity depends upon the degree of nerve hypoplasia.  Nystagmus and strabismus may be present. 

Systemic Features: 

Midline brain defects are common.  This usually consists of an absent septum pellucidum but sometimes absence or thinning of the corpus callosum as well.  An ‘empty sella’ with a dysplastic pituitary gland and deficiencies in hormone output can be present.  Hypoglycemia, hypogonadism, short stature and corticotrophin deficiency may result.  There is considerable clinical heterogeneity and few patients have all of these features.  Only 29% of patients have the full spectrum of brain, optic nerve, and pituitary abnormalities.  It has been proposed that the severity of the brain midline defects can be correlated with the degree of endocrinopathy.  Mental retardation and features of autism spectrum disorders may be present.

A few patients have been reported with skeletal deformities such as syndactyly and hypoplastic digits.  Rare males have underdeveloped genitalia. 

Genetics

The majority of cases occur sporadically.  Among rare cases with a family history, homozygosity of a mutation in the HESX1 gene (3p21.2-p21.1) has been found suggesting an autosomal recessive etiology.  It seems likely that there remains considerable genetic heterogeneity and it is doubtful that septooptic dysplasia is a unique disorder.  

Bilateral optic nerve hypoplasia (165550) also occurs without the CNS malformations but it results from a different mutation.

Pedigree: 
Autosomal recessive
Treatment
Treatment Options: 

All patients with optic nerve hypoplasia should be evaluated for midline brain anomalies and endocrinopathy.  There is no treatment for the optic nerve hypoplasia but low vision aids could be helpful in selected cases with bilateral nerve dysplasia.  The hormonal deficiencies, of course, need to be corrected with appropriate replacements. 

References
Article Title: 

Endocrine status in patients with optic nerve hypoplasia: relationship to midline central nervous system abnormalities and appearance of the hypothalamic-pituitary axis on magnetic resonance imaging

Birkebaek NH, Patel L, Wright NB, Grigg JR, Sinha S, Hall CM, Price DA, Lloyd IC, Clayton PE. Endocrine status in patients with optic nerve hypoplasia: relationship to midline central nervous system abnormalities and appearance of the hypothalamic-pituitary axis on magnetic resonance imaging. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2003 Nov;88(11):5281-6.

PubMed ID: 
14602752

Optic Nerve Hypoplasia, Bilateral

Clinical Characteristics
Ocular Features: 

The hallmark of this syndrome is bilateral optic nerve dysplasia including aplasia and hypoplasia. It may occur in isolation or as part of other syndromes, especially in those having abnormalities of the central nervous system.  All components of the nerve head are abnormally small including the entire disc area, the cup, and the neuroretinal rim. It has been reported that retinal vein tortuosity is predictive of patients with endocrinopathies.  Retinal arteries often appear straight and narrow but this may not be seen in all cases.  Visual acuity ranges from 20/50 to NLP but usually 20/200 or better.  Many patients have nystagmus and strabismus.

This disorder shares many characteristics with septooptic dysplasia (182230) but the optic nerve anomalies are usually unilateral in the latter disorder and the disc rim often has a double margin.  Mutations in different genes are responsible for the two disorders. 

Systemic Features: 

Pituitary dysfunction and endocrinopathy may lead to life-threatening illness caused by adrenal crisis or hypoglycemia.  An absent or abnormal septum pellucidum is present in 49% of patients and 64% have a hypothalamic-pituitary axis abnormality.  Among those with an abnormal septum pellucidum, 56% have some kind of endocrinopathy. Other midline brain defects and cerebral anomalies have also been reported.

 

Genetics

Bilateral optic nerve hypoplasia is inherited in an autosomal dominant pattern based on the few families reported.  Mutations in the PAX6 (11q13) gene are responsible.

A somewhat similar disease with extensive CNS and endocrinological abnormalities is septooptic dysplasia (182230) caused by mutations in the HESX1 gene. 

Pedigree: 
Autosomal dominant
Treatment
Treatment Options: 

There is no treatment for the optic nerve hypoplasia but individuals need to be monitored for endocrinopathy and treated appropriately.  Low vision aids and sometimes mobility training can be helpful for some patients. 

References
Article Title: 

Endocrine status in patients with optic nerve hypoplasia: relationship to midline central nervous system abnormalities and appearance of the hypothalamic-pituitary axis on magnetic resonance imaging

Birkebaek NH, Patel L, Wright NB, Grigg JR, Sinha S, Hall CM, Price DA, Lloyd IC, Clayton PE. Endocrine status in patients with optic nerve hypoplasia: relationship to midline central nervous system abnormalities and appearance of the hypothalamic-pituitary axis on magnetic resonance imaging. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2003 Nov;88(11):5281-6.

PubMed ID: 
14602752

Bornholm Eye Disease

Clinical Characteristics
Ocular Features: 

This is primarily a disorder of high myopia but with additional features.  The optic nerve head is moderately hypoplastic and RPE throughout the posterior pole is said to be thinner than normal.  The males also have deuteranopia of a stationary nature and the disorder can also be considered a form of stationary cone dysfunction.  Photophobia and nystagmus are not present.  The ERG demonstrates reduced flicker function with abnormal photopic responses.  Myopia is likely congenital as it has been found in children from 1.5-5 years of age.

The original families reported with this disorder originated on the Danish island of Bornholm from which the eponym is derived.  However, a subsequent American family of Danish descent from nearby islands was found but the males were protanopes.  All affected males had a temporal conus of the optic nerve as well as thinning of the RPE in the posterior pole.  Visual acuity ranged from 20/20 to 20/40 with myopia of minus 10-18 diopters.  No macular disease was visible, no vitreous changes were seen, and none of the subjects had a retinal detachment. There was no evidence of progression in clinical signs over a period of 5 years.  The ERG showed normal scotopic rod function but cone responses were abnormal.  All carrier females and unaffected individuals had normal ERGs and color vision. 

Systemic Features: 

No systemic disease has been associated with this disorder. 

Genetics

This is an X-linked disorder that maps to Xq28 but no gene mutation has been identified.  A form of X-linked high myopia (MYP1) (310460) maps to the same region. 

Pedigree: 
X-linked recessive, carrier mother
X-linked recessive, father affected
Treatment
Treatment Options: 

No treatment is available.

References
Article Title: 

X-linked high myopia associated with cone dysfunction

Young TL, Deeb SS, Ronan SM, Dewan AT, Alvear AB, Scavello GS, Paluru PC, Brott MS, Hayashi T, Holleschau AM, Benegas N, Schwartz M, Atwood LD, Oetting WS, Rosenberg T, Motulsky AG, King RA. X-linked high myopia associated with cone dysfunction. Arch Ophthalmol. 2004 Jun;122(6):897-908.

PubMed ID: 
15197065

X-linked myopia: Bornholm eye disease

Schwartz M, Haim M, Skarsholm D. X-linked myopia: Bornholm eye disease. Linkage to DNA markers on the distal part of Xq. Clin Genet. 1990 Oct;38(4):281-6.

PubMed ID: 
1980096

X-linked myopia in Danish family

Haim M, Fledelius HC, Skarsholm. X-linked myopia in Danish family. Acta Ophthalmol (Copenh). 1988 Aug;66(4):450-6.

PubMed ID: 
3264103

Smith-Lemli-Opitz Syndrome

Clinical Characteristics
Ocular Features: 

A large number of ocular anomalies have been found in SLO syndrome but the most common is blepharoptosis of some degree.  No consistent pattern of ocular abnormalities has been reported.  Atrophy and hypoplasia of the optic nerve, strabismus, nystagmus, and cataracts may be present.   Abnormally low concentrations of cholesterol and cholesterol precursors have been found in all ocular tissues studied.

Systemic Features: 

This is a syndrome of multiple congenital anomalies.  Among these are dwarfism, micrognathia, hard palate anomalies, hypotonia, anomalies of the external genitalia, polysyndactyly, microcephaly, and mental retardation.  It has been suggested that many individuals have a characteristic behavioral profile consisting of cognitive delays, hyperreactivity, irritability, language deficiency, and autism spectrum behaviors.  Some individuals exhibit aspects of self destructive behavior.  Tissue levels of cholesterol are low.

Genetics

SLO syndrome is an autosomal recessive disorder resulting from mutations in the sterol delta-7-reductase  (DHCR7) gene mapped to 11q12-q13. The result is a defect in cholesterol synthesis.

The clinical features significantly overlap those seen in Meckel (249000) and Joubert (213300) syndromes.

Pedigree: 
Autosomal recessive
Treatment
Treatment Options: 

A high cholesterol diet has been reported to have a beneficial effect on behavior and general well-being.

References
Article Title: 

Pfeiffer Syndrome

Clinical Characteristics
Ocular Features: 

Patients may have extreme proptosis (95%) secondary to shallow orbits and exposure keratitis (41%) is a risk.  Hypertelorism, strabismus, and antimongoloid lid slants are common.  More rare signs include anterior chamber anomalies and optic nerve hypoplasia.

Systemic Features: 

Pfeiffer syndrome has been divided into 3 types, of which cases with types 2 and 3 often die young.  Type 1 has the more typical features with midface hypoplasia, broad thumbs and toes, craniosynostosis, and often some degree of syndactyly.  Adult patients with type 1 may be only mildly affected with some degree of midface hypoplasia and minor broadening of the first digits.  Hearing loss secondary to bony defects is relatively common.  Cleft palate is uncommon.  Airway malformations especially in the trachea can cause respiratory problems.

Genetics

This is a genetically heterogeneous disorder resulting from mutations in at least 2 genes, FGFR1 (8p11.2-p11.1) and FGFR2 (10q26).  The less common cases with the latter mutation are allelic to Apert (101200), Crouzon (123500), and Jackson-Weiss (123150) syndromes.  Inheritance is autosomal dominant but some cases are only mildly affected.  New mutations exhibit a paternal age effect.

Other forms of craniosynostosis in which mutations in FGFR2 have been found are: Beare-Stevenson Syndrome (123790), and Saethre-Chotzen Syndrome (101400).

Pedigree: 
Autosomal dominant
Treatment
Treatment Options: 

Exposure keratitis requires the usual treatment.  Fronto-orbital advancement surgery for the midface underdevelopment is generally helpful for the complications of proptosis.  Airway obstruction may require tracheostomy or surgical correction of the air passages.

References
Article Title: 

FGFR2 mutations in Pfeiffer syndrome

Lajeunie E, Ma HW, Bonaventure J, Munnich A, Le Merrer M, Renier D. FGFR2 mutations in Pfeiffer syndrome. Nat Genet. 1995 Feb;9(2):108.

PubMed ID: 
7719333

Aniridia 1

Clinical Characteristics
Ocular Features: 

Aniridia is the name of both a disorder and a group of disorders.  This because aniridia is both an isolated ocular disease and a feature of several malformation syndromes.  Absence of the iris was first reported in the early 19th century.  The hallmark of the disease is bilateral iris hypoplasia which may consist of minimal loss of iris tissue with simple radial clefts, colobomas, pseudopolycoria, and correctopia, to nearly complete absence.  Goniosocopy may be required to visualize tags of iris root when no iris is visible externally.  Glaucoma is frequently present (~67%) and often difficult to treat.  It is responsible for blindness in a significant number of patients.  About 15% of patients are diagnosed with glaucoma in each decade of life but this rises to 35% among individuals 40-49 years of age.  Hypoplasia and dysplasia of the fovea are likely responsible for the poor vision in many individuals.  Nystagmus is frequently present.  The ciliary body may also be hypoplastic. 

Visual acuity varies widely.  In many families it is less than 20/60 in all members and the majority have less than 20/200.  Photophobia can be incapacitating.  Posterior segment OCT changes suggest that outer retinal damage suggestive of a phototoxic retinopathy may also be a factor in the reduced acuity.  Cataracts (congenital in >75%), ectopia lentis (bilateral in >26%), optic nerve hypoplasia, variable degrees of corneal clouding with or without a vascularized pannus, and dysgenesis of the anterior chamber angle are frequently present. 

Increased corneal thickness (>600 microns) has been found in some series and should be considered when IOP measurements are made.  In early stages of the disease, focal opacities are present in the basal epithelium, associated with sub-basal nerves.  Dendritic cells can infiltrate the central epithelium and normal limbal palisade architecture is absent. 

Meibomian gland anomalies also contribute to the corneal disease.  The glands may be decreased in number and smaller in size contributing to deficiencies of the tear film and unstable surface wetting.

Systemic Features: 

In addition to 'pure' aniridia in which no systemic features are found, at least six disorders have been reported in which systemic anomalies do occur.  Three of these have associated renal anomalies, including Wilms tumor with other genitourinary anomalies and mental retardation, sometimes called WAGR (194072) syndrome, another (612469) with similar features plus obesity sometime called WAGRO (612469) syndrome reported in isolated patients, and yet another with partial aniridia (206750) and unilateral renal agenesis and psychomotor retardation reported in a single family.  Aniridia with dysplastic or absent patella (106220) has been reported in a single three generation family.  Cerebellar ataxia and mental retardation with motor deficits (Gillespie syndrome; 206700) have been found in other families with anirdia.  Another 3 generation family has been reported in which aniridia, microcornea and spontaneously resorbed cataracts occured (106230).

About one-third of patients with aniridia also have Wilms tumor and many have some cognitive deficits.

Genetics

The majority of cases have a mutation in the paired box gene (PAX6) complex, or at least include this locus when chromosomal aberrations such as deletions are present in the region (11p13).  This complex (containing at least 9 genes) is multifunctional and important to the tissue regulation of numerous developmental genes.   PAX6 mutations, encoding a highly conserved transcription regulator, generally cause hypoplasia of the iris and foveal hypoplasia but are also important in CNS development.  It has been suggested that PAX6 gene dysfunction may be the only gene defect associated with aniridia.  More than 300 specific mutations, most causing premature truncation of the polypeptide, have been identified.  

AN1 results from mutations in the PAX6 gene.  Two additional forms of aniridia have been reported in which functional alterations in genes that modulate the expression of PAX6 are responsible: AN2 (617141) with mutations in ELP4 and AN3 (617142) with mutations in TRIM44.  Both ELP4 and TRIM44 are regulators of the PAX6 transcription gene.

Associated abnormalities may be due to a second mutation in the WT1 gene in WAGR (194072) syndrome, a deletion syndrome involving both WT1 and PAX6 genes at 11p13.  The WAGRO syndrome (612469) is caused by a contiguous deletion in chromosome 11 (11p12-p13) involving three genes: WT1, PAX6, and BDNF.  All types are likely inherited as autosomal dominant disorders although nearly one-third of cases occur sporadically.

Mutations in PAX6 associated with aniridia can cause other anterior chamber malformations such as Peters anomaly (604229).

Gillespie syndrome (206700 ) is an allelic disorder with neurological abnormalities including cerebellar ataxia and mental retardation.

Pedigree: 
Autosomal dominant
Treatment
Treatment Options: 

Treatment is directed at the associated threats to vision such as glaucoma, corneal opacities, and cataracts.  Glaucoma is the most serious threat and is the most difficult to treat. The best results have been reported with glaucoma drainage devices.  All patients should have eye examinations at appropriate intervals throughout life, focused on glaucoma screening.  It is well to keep in mind that foveal maldevelopment often precludes significant improvement in acuity and heroic measures must be carefully evaluated.  Specifically, corneal transplants and glaucoma control measures frequently fail.

Low vision aids are often helpful.  Tinted lenses can minimize photophobia.  Occupational and vocational training should be considered for older individuals.  Surface wetting of the cornea should be periodically evaluated and appropriate topical lubrication used as needed. 

Young children with aniridia should have periodic examinations with renal imaging as recommended by a urologist.

In mice, postnatal topical ocular application of ataluren-based eyedrop formulations can reverse malformations caused by PAX6 mutations.

References
Article Title: 

Familial aniridia with preserved

Elsas FJ, Maumenee IH, Kenyon KR, Yoder F. Familial aniridia with preserved ocular function. Am J Ophthalmol. 1977 May;83(5):718-24.

PubMed ID: 
868970

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