X-linked recessive

Pelizeaus-Merzbacher Disease

Clinical Characteristics
Ocular Features: 

Nystagmus is the major ocular feature in this disease and may appear as early as the first weeks of life in severe cases.  However, more mildly affected individuals may never have nystagmus and, further, it can disappear later.  The ocular movements are usually pendular but may have horizontal and rotatory components as well.  The presence of nystagmus is diagnostically important as it is an uncommon finding in other leukodystrophies.

Systemic Features: 

The classic disease is infantile in onset with hypotonia, titubation, weakness, stridor, respiratory problems, and even seizures often noted in the first weeks of life.   Ataxia, spasticity and cognitive delay are soon apparent.  Infants affected early and severely may never achieve normal motor or mental milestones whereas those less severely affected may at some point ambulate and acquire some language skills.  However, acquired skills may be lost by adolescence.  Survival to the sixth decade of life is common but those with the most severe form of disease may not live beyond the second decade. 

This is an X-linked recessive disorder in which only males have the complete syndrome.  However, multiple carrier females have been studied and many have subtle evidence of disease mainly in gait and motor control.

Genetics

Pelizeaus-Merzbacher disease is the result of mutations in an X-linked gene PLP1 (Xq22).  It is inherited in an X-linked recessive pattern.  Duplication of the PLP1 gene is more common than point mutations.  The signs and symptoms are not diagnostic of PMD as mutations in other genes can cause a similar phenotype. 

Spastic paraplegia-2 (SPG2; 312920)is an allelic disorder in which nystagmus and optic atrophy are also found in some patients.

Pedigree: 
X-linked recessive, carrier mother
X-linked recessive, father affected
Treatment
Treatment Options: 

There is no effective treatment for this disease.  Airway protection and seizure control should be applied in specific situations.  Patients often need a feeding tube for adequate nutrition.

References
Article Title: 

Optic Atrophy 2, X-Linked

Clinical Characteristics
Ocular Features: 

Visual symptoms can begin in early childhood (males only) and vision deteriorates slowly.  All affected individuals have optic atrophy with acuities ranging from 20/30 to 20/100.  ERGs are usually normal whereas VEPs show prolonged latencies.  Color vision is variably defective and central scotomas are present.

Systemic Features: 

Some but not all patients have additional neurological signs including absent ankle jerks, hyperactive knee jerks, extensor plantar reflexes, dysarthria and dysdiadochokinesia.  Symptoms are usually minor.  Obligatory female carriers do not have optic atrophy or neurologic signs.  Mental retardation has been reported in a few patients.

Genetics

This is an X-linked recessive disorder secondary to a mutation in OPA2 (Xp11.4-p11.21). Only males are affected and female carriers are clinically normal.

Pedigree: 
X-linked recessive, carrier mother
X-linked recessive, father affected
Treatment
Treatment Options: 

No treatment is available for the optic atrophy.

References
Article Title: 

Lowe Oculocerebrorenal Syndrome

Clinical Characteristics
Ocular Features: 

Lens development is abnormal from the beginning secondary to abnormal migration of lens epithelium which has been described in fetuses by 20-24 weeks of gestation.  This leads to some degree of opacification in 100% of affected males.  The lens opacities may be polar or nuclear in location but complete opacification also occurs.   Leukocoria, miosis, microphthalmos and a shallow anterior chamber has been noted in neonates.  The cataractous lenses may be small and abnormally formed.  Glaucoma is present in more than half of affected males with onset by the age of 6 years and may be difficult to control.  Conjunctival and corneal keloids are found in about one-fourth of patients.

Adult female carriers characteristically have peripheral cortical opacities, appearing in a radial configuration.  These 'snowflake' opacities seldom cause visual symptoms.   It has been proposed that slit lamp examinations for such opacities can accurately determine the carrier status of females.

Systemic Features: 

Mental retardation, hypotonia, short stature, and developmental delays are common.  Seizures and behavior problems are seen in older children.  The renal defect secondary to defective phosphatidylinositol 4, 5-biphosphate 5- phosphatase results in a Fanconi-type aminoaciduria beginning late in the first year of life.  The phosphaturia leads to hypophosphatemia and eventually renal rickets.  Proteinuria, polyuria, as well as bicarbonate, sodium and potassium wasting with tubular acidosis are all part of the urinary profile.  Some patients have dental cysts and/or defective dentin.

Genetics

The mutation causing this X-linked disorder is in the OCRL gene located at Xq26.1.  New mutations have been found among nearly one-third of affected males.  

Another X-linked disorder with similar but less severe kidney disease, Dent disease 2 (300555), has been found to have mutations in the same gene.  However, none of the ocular features are present.

Pedigree: 
Autosomal recessive
Treatment
Treatment Options: 

Cataracts need to be removed before sensory nystagmus and amblyopia develop.  Fluid and electrolyte balance must be maintained.  Growth hormone can be used in selected patients.  Supportive systemic care is necessary in most cases.  Lifelong kidney and ocular monitoring is recommended.

References
Article Title: 

Hunter Syndrome (MPS II)

Clinical Characteristics
Ocular Features: 

Corneal clouding may be noted as early as 6 months of age but is usually absent. When present it is milder than in some other forms of mucopolysaccharidosis.  A pigmentary retinopathy with variable severity is often present.  The disc may be elevated and appears swollen.  Secondary optic atrophy may be seen in long standing cases.

Systemic Features: 

Mild to severe developmental delays are common and mental retardation has been reported in some cases.  There is often 'pebbling' of the skin over the neck and chest.  Joint stiffness, short stature, and skeletal deformities are common.   Many have short necks, a protuberant abdomen, a broad chest, and facial coarseness.  Hepatosplenomegaly, hearing loss, hernias, and carpal tunnel syndrome are often present.  The skull is large with a J-shaped sella, the vertebral bodies are hypoplastic anteriorly, the pelvis and femoral heads are hypoplastic and the diaphyses are expanded.

A severe form, type A, has its onset in the first two to four years of life, with more rapid progression and death commonly by adolescence.  Many patients have obstructive pulmonary disease and heart failure.  The IDS deficiency is similar to that of type B which is less severe and compatible with life into the 7th decade.  Intelligence is often normal in type B.

Genetics

Hunter syndrome, or MPS II, is one of seven lysosomal enzyme deficiencies responsible for the degradation of mucopolysaccharides, and the only one known to be X-linked (Xq28).  The mutation in IDS leads to a deficiency of iduronate sulfatase resulting in accumulation of dermatan and heparin sulfate.  Rare affected females may have chromosomal deletions instead of a simple mutation in IDS.

Pedigree: 
X-linked recessive, carrier mother
X-linked recessive, father affected
Treatment
Treatment Options: 

Various therapies are under development including enzyme replacement, gene transfers, and bone marrow transplantation.  Human iduronate-2-sulfatase (Idursulfase) has been used with encouraging signs but it is too early to determine the long term effectiveness.

References
Article Title: 

Keratosis Follicularis Spinulosa Decalvans, X-Linked

Clinical Characteristics
Ocular Features: 

There is alopecia of the eyelashes and eyebrows.  The skin of the eyelids is thickened often with an associated chronic blepharitis followed by entropion (ectropion sometimes mentioned).  Photophobia and keratitis with 'corneal degeneration' are also features but it is unknown whether these are primary or secondary to trichiasis from the eyelid deformities.  The corneal findings usually precede the scarring alopecia of the scalp.

Systemic Features: 

Onset is in childhood.  Thickening of skin is generalized especially in the neck, ears, and the extremities with marked involvement of the palms and soles, especially in the calcaneal regions.  Scalp hair may be sparse, often in a streak pattern.  The follicles are inflamed and hyperkeratotic resulting in scarring alopecia.  Carriers have been reported to have dry skin with mild follicular hyperkeratosis and more extensive involvement of the soles.

Genetics

This is a rare disorder with genetic and clinical heterogeneity.  The majority of cases seem to be inherited in an X-linked recessive pattern secondary to mutations in the SAT1 gen located at Xp22.1. 

However, multigenerational families with male to male transmission have also been reported suggesting autosomal dominant inheritance (KFSD; 612843).  However, no associated mutations or loci have been reported for this condition.

 

Pedigree: 
Autosomal dominant
X-linked recessive, carrier mother
X-linked recessive, father affected
Treatment
Treatment Options: 

Retinoids reduce the inflammatory component and lead to cessation of the scalp alopecia.  A decrease in photophobia has also been reported but the clinical basis for this is unknown.

References
Article Title: 

Gene dosage of the spermidine/spermine N(1)-acetyltransferase ( SSAT) gene with putrescine accumulation in a patient with a Xp21.1p22.12 duplication and keratosis follicularis spinulosa decalvans (KFSD)

Gimelli G, Giglio S, Zuffardi O, Alhonen L, Suppola S, Cusano R, Lo Nigro C, Gatti R, Ravazzolo R, Seri M. Gene dosage of the spermidine/spermine N(1)-acetyltransferase ( SSAT) gene with putrescine accumulation in a patient with a Xp21.1p22.12 duplication and keratosis follicularis spinulosa decalvans (KFSD). Hum Genet. 2002 Sep;111(3):235-41.

PubMed ID: 
12215835

Norrie Disease

Clinical Characteristics
Ocular Features: 

Norrie disease often presents at birth or soon thereafter with leukocoria.  There may be no response to light even at this early stage.  Microphthalmos, iris atrophy, and synechiae are often noted as well.  The posterior chamber contains a whitish-yellow mass associated with retinal folds and sometimes retinal detachment (pseudoglioma).  The vitreous may appear membranous and fibrovascular, often with traction on the retina.  Cataracts frequently develop early.  These signs may be unilateral or bilateral.  Corneal abnormalities such as opacities or sclerocornea may be present.  The mass in the posterior pole has to be distinguished from a retinoblastoma but the appearance may also resemble familial exudative vitreoretinopathy, Coats disease, persistent hyperplastic vitreous retinopathy, or retinopathy of prematurity.

Histology shows hemorrhagic necrosis of an undifferentiated glial mass.  The primary defect seems to lie in the neuroretina with absence of the ganglion cells and dysplasia of the remaining layers.  Many eyes become phthisical.

Systemic Features: 

Many individuals have growth and developmental delays with cognitive impairment and/or behavioral disorders (50%).  Frank psychoses have been reported in some patients.  Approximately 10% of patients have a chronic seizure disorder. Sensorineural deafness of some degree develops by the second decade in up to 100% of individuals.

Peripheral vascular disease (varicose veins, venous stasis ulcers, and erectile dysfunction) is present in nearly all men over the age of 50 years, perhaps the result of small vessel angiopathy.  Its age of onset is similar to that of the hearing deficit and the time course of progression is similar.

Genetics

This is an X-linked disorder as a result of mutations in the NDP gene (Xp11.4) encoding norrin.  Many mutations causing Norrie disease are novel or at least rare as might be expected for a disorder that leads to a marked reduction in reproductive fitness in males.  Carrier females usually do not have any evidence of disease.

Mutations in NDP also are responsible for a sex-linked form of familial exudative vitreoretinopathy, EVR2 (305390).  They have also been found in some cases of persistent hyperplastic primary vitreous and even in Coates' disease.  The latter conditions are usually present unilaterally, however, and some consider bilaterality to be a characteristic of NDP-related retinopathies.

Pedigree: 
X-linked recessive, carrier mother
X-linked recessive, father affected
Treatment
Treatment Options: 

No effective treatment is available.

References
Article Title: 

Mutations in the Norrie disease gene

Schuback DE, Chen ZY, Craig IW, Breakefield XO, Sims KB. Mutations in the Norrie disease gene. Hum Mutat. 1995;5(4):285-92.

PubMed ID: 
7627181

Familial Exudative Vitreoretinopathy, EVR2

Clinical Characteristics
Ocular Features: 

The basis for many of the ocular complications likely begins with incomplete development of the retinal vasculature.  Resulting retinal ischemia leads to neovascularization, vitreous hemorrhage and traction, and retinal folds, with some 20% going on to develop rhegmatogenous or traction detachments.  There is, however, considerable clinical variability, even within families, with some infants blind from birth whereas some (41%) adults have only areas of remaining avascularity or evidence of macular dragging.  In fact, some affected individuals are asymptomatic and diagnosed only as part of extensive family studies.  Intraretinal lipid is often seen.  Considerable asymmetry in the two eyes is common.  Secondary cataracts often occur and phthisis bulbi results in some patients.  The clinical picture is sometimes confused with retinopathy of prematurity.

Systemic Features: 

No consistent systemic abnormalities have been identified in EVR2.

Genetics

Familial exudative vitreoretinopathy is the name given to a clinically and genetically heterogeneous group of disorders caused by mutations in several genes.  Autosomal dominant (e.g., EVR1; 133780), and X-linked inheritance (this condition) have been reported with the former much more common. 

The X-linked form of FEVR (EVR2 described here) results from mutations in the NDP gene (Xp11.3) and is allelic to Norrie disease (310600).

Retinopathy of prematurity can be called a phenocopy of FEVR.

Pedigree: 
X-linked recessive, carrier mother
X-linked recessive, father affected
Treatment
Treatment Options: 

Retinal, vitreal, and cataract surgery are indicated in appropriate cases.

References
Article Title: 

Night Blindness, Congenital Stationary, CSNB2A

Clinical Characteristics
Ocular Features: 

Night blindness is a feature of many pigmentary and other retinal disorders, most of which are progressive.  However, there is also a group of genetically heterogeneous disorders, with generally stable scotopic defects and without RPE changes, known as congenital stationary night blindness (CSNB).  At least 10 mutant genes are responsible with phenotypes so similar that genotyping is usually necessary to distinguish them.  All are caused by defects in visual signal transduction within rod photoreceptors or in defective photoreceptor-to-bipolar cell signaling with common ERG findings of reduced or absent b-waves and generally normal a-waves.  However, the photopic ERG can be abnormal to some degree as well and visual acuity may be subnormal.  In the pregenomic era, subtleties of ERG responses were frequently used in an attempt to distinguish different forms of CSNB.  Genotyping now enables classification with unprecedented precision.

Congenital stationary night blindness disorders are primarily rod dystrophies presenting early with symptoms of nightblindness and relative sparing of central vision.  Nystagmus and photophobia are usually not features.  Dyschromatopsia and loss of central acuity can develop later as the cones eventually become dysfunctional as well but these symptoms are much less severe than those seen in cone-rod dystrophies.  The amount of pigmentary retinopathy is highly variable. 

CSNB2A, or type 2A, is associated with myopia which ranges from mild to severe.  Residual rod function is diminished but not completely absent as suggested by the presence of small b-waves.  Cone function is impacted to some degree as well.  Nystagmus and strabismus are inconsistent findings.  Retinal pigmentation is usually normal in the X-linked forms. Visual acuity ranges from 20/30 to 20/200.  Night blindness is less severe in this form than in another X-linked CSNB (CSNB1A; 310500).  Mild dyschromatopsia is present in some patients but this is primarily a disease of rods.

Systemic Features: 

No systemic disease is associated with congenital stationary night blindness.

Genetics

Congenital stationary night blindness type 2A is an X-linked disorder caused by a mutation in the CACNA1F gene located at Xp11.23.  Only males are affected and carrier females do not have clinical disease.

This disorder is allelic to Aland Island Eye Disease (300600) from which it differs by an apparent lack of progressive myopia and the presence of a normal fovea.  Aland Island Eye Disease has foveal hypoplasia as well as iris and fundus hypopigmentation.

Another allelic disorder with mutations in CACNA1F is CORDX3 (300476), a cone-rod dystrophy.

Approximately 55% of X-linked CSNB are of this type while about 45% have another X-linked form known as CSNB1A, or type 1A (310500) secondary to a mutation at Xp11.4. 

Pedigree: 
X-linked recessive, carrier mother
X-linked recessive, father affected
Treatment
Treatment Options: 

No treatment beyond correction of the refractive error is available but tinted lenses are sometimes used to enhance vision.

References
Article Title: 

Night Blindness, Congenital Stationary, CSNB1A

Clinical Characteristics
Ocular Features: 

Night blindness is a feature of many pigmentary and other retinal disorders, most of which are progressive.  However, there is also a group of genetically heterogeneous disorders, with generally stable scotopic defects and without RPE changes, known as congenital stationary night blindness (CSNB).  At least 10 mutant genes are responsible with phenotypes so similar that genotyping is usually necessary to distinguish them.  All are caused by defects in visual signal transduction within rod photoreceptors or in defective photoreceptor-to-bipolar cell signaling with common ERG findings of reduced or absent b-waves and generally normal a-waves.  The photopic ERG is usually abnormal to some degree as well and visual acuity may be subnormal.  In the pregenomic era, subtleties of ERG responses were frequently used in an attempt to distinguish different forms of CSNB.  Genotyping now enables classification with unprecedented precision.

Congenital stationary night blindness disorders are primarily rod dystrophies presenting early with symptoms of nightblindness and relative sparing of central vision.  Nystagmus and photophobia are usually not features.  Dyschromatopsia and loss of central acuity can develop later as the cones eventually become dysfunctional as well but these symptoms are much less severe than those seen in cone-rod dystrophies.  The amount of pigmentary retinopathy is highly variable. 

CSNB1A, or type 1A, is associated with myopia which ranges from mild to severe.  Rod function is completely absent.  Nystagmus and strabismus are inconsistent findings.   Visual acuity ranges from 20/30 to 20/200.  Retinal pigmentation is usually normal in the X-linked forms.  Night blindness is more severe in this form than in another X-linked CSNB, type 2A (300071). 

Systemic Features: 

No systemic disease is associated with congenital stationary night blindness.

Genetics

Congenital stationary night blindness type 1A is an X-linked disorder caused by a mutation in the NYX gene located at Xp11.4.  Only males are affected and carrier females do not have clinical disease (although homozygous females with typical findings have been described).

Approximately 45% of X-linked CSNB are of this type while about 55% have another X-linked form known as CSNB2A, or type 2A (300071) resulting from a mutation at Xp11.23.  A single patient with high myopia absent night blindness with a mutation in the NYX gene has been reported.

Pedigree: 
X-linked recessive, carrier mother
X-linked recessive, father affected
Treatment
Treatment Options: 

No treatment beyond correction of the refractive error is available but tinted lenses are sometimes used to enhance vision.

References
Article Title: 

Albinism, Ocular Type 1

Clinical Characteristics
Ocular Features: 

Signs in ocular albinism include hypopigmentation of the fundus with clearly visible choroidal vessels, foveal hypoplasia, and hypopigmentation of the iris. Strabismus, nystagmus, photophobia, absent stereoacuity and high refractive errors including hypermetropia are other common features.  Vision may be near normal but usually worse, in the range of 20/100 to 20/300.  In at least some patients with ocular albinism, concentric macular rings have been identified using infrared reflectance images.

In ocular albinism there is a nearly complete crossing of nerve fibers in the optic chiasm as well as a decreased number of photoreceptors.  MRI imaging of the optic chiasm in humans with albinism reveals it to be smaller with a wider angle between optic tracts, reflecting the atypical crossing of nerve fibers.

This is an X-linked recessive disorder and affects mainly men. In 80% of female carriers a mosaic of pigmentary changes can be observed in the fundus, especially in the periphery as a result of lyonization.  A few female heterozygotes have ocular changes of albinism including nystagmus and reduced visual acuity, likely as a result of unequal X-chromosome inactivation.  Perhaps three-quarters of carrier females have transillumination defects in the iris.

Hearing loss is often associated with pigmentation disorders and families with X-linked ocular albinism have been reported with a late onset sensorineural deafness (300650).  The ocular findings are typical but deafness is not significant until late midlife.

Systemic Features: 

In ocular albinism, pigmentation is normal except in the eye.  Hearing loss has been reported in a single family but this may be a unique disorder since the genotype was not determined.

Male infertility has been reported in some patients with OCA1 and late-onset sensorineural hearing loss which has been hypothesized ro be part of a contiguous gene deletion syndrome involving GPR143, TBL1X and posssibly SHROOM2 genes.

Genetics

Ocular albinism (OA1) is a recessive X-linked disorder, caused by mutations in the GPR143 gene, located at Xp22.3.  The protein product, a G protein-coupled receptor, is localized on the membrane of melanosomes in pigmented cells in the eye.  The same gene is mutated in congenital nystagmus 6 (300814).  Ocular albinism with late onset sensorineural deafness (300650) results from mutations in the Xp22.3 region as well and may or may not be the same condition.  In some individuals the contiguous genes TBL1X and SHROOM2 may also have mutations (usually microdeletions).

It has been reported that mutations in GNA13 (17q24.1), activated by OA1, can also result in the ocular albinism phenotype.

Pedigree: 
X-linked recessive, carrier mother
X-linked recessive, father affected
Treatment
Treatment Options: 

Treatment for the ocular symptoms is targeted toward specific problems. Refractive errors are treated with corrective glasses with tinted lenses recommended for the photophobia. Low vision aids and special education may be required.

References
Article Title: 

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