macular dystrophy

Hypotrichosis with Juvenile Macular Degeneration

Clinical Characteristics
Ocular Features: 

Macular dystrophy usually becomes symptomatic before the second decade of life but retinal evidence of macular degeneration can be seen in the first decade.   EOG is usually normal while the ERG responses are decreased early and with time decrease further in amplitude.  Pattern reversal VEPs are significantly subnormal even while vision is relatively good.  Visual acuity decreases slowly in spite of significant deterioration of cone- and rod-mediated retinal function.  Retinal pigmentary changes consisting of irregular clumping and areas of hypopigmentation are evident in the macular and perimacular areas and sometimes beyond.  Most patients eventually become blind. 

Systemic Features: 

Scalp hair loss occurs during the first months of life but the alopecia does not affect eyebrows or eyelashes unlike that seen in the EEM disorder (225280)  which in addition has digital and dental anomalies.  Partial regrowth may occur during puberty.  Light and electron microscopy of hair shafts may reveal pili torti, longitudinal ridging with scaling, and fusiform beading but these are not present in all patients. 

Genetics

This is an autosomal recessive disorder resulting from homozygous mutations in the CDH3 gene located at 16q22.1.

EEM syndrome (225280) is an allelic disorder with similar hair and retinal features plus dental, digital and limb anomalies.  The hypotrichosis also involves the eyebrows and eyelashes in this disorder, however. 

Pedigree: 
Autosomal recessive
Treatment
Treatment Options: 

There is no known treatment for this disorder. 

References
Article Title: 

Doyne Honeycomb Macular Dystrophy

Clinical Characteristics
Ocular Features: 

Beginning usually in midlife, the retina has radially localized white, large drusen in the posterior pole.  These may begin as small drusen that later enlarge and become confluent creating a honeycomb pattern.  The disease begins as an accumulation of material between the Bruch membrane and the RPE.  Eventually drusen occupy the entire thickness of the Bruch membrane and are continuous with or internal to the RPE basement membrane.  Vision early is normal and a slow loss of vision occurs sometime after the drusen appear in most individuals.  In some patients geographic atrophy, pigmentary changes, and a subfoveal neovascular net develops with macular scarring, vitreous hemorrhage, and severe reduction of vision.

Systemic Features: 

No systemic disease is associated.

Genetics

Doyne honeycomb macular disease, or dominant drusen, is the result of mutations in the EFEMP1 gene at 2p16 in the majority of cases.  It is an autosomal dominant disorder. The mutant protein product (a member of the fibulin famiy) is folded abnormally and secreted inefficiently.  It is also resistant to degradation which may lead to receptor damage by limiting access to nutrients from the choriocapillaris.  Some genetic heterogeneity may exist since a few cases seem to be linked to a locus at 6q14.    Some have considered Malattia Leventinese and Doyne honeycomb retinal dystrophy as separate entities but mutations in the same gene seem to be responsible for both conditions suggesting they are clinical variations of the same disorder.

Pedigree: 
Autosomal dominant
Treatment
Treatment Options: 

The subfoveal net responds to photodynamic therapy.

References
Article Title: 

Macular Dystrophy, North Carolina

Clinical Characteristics
Ocular Features: 

North Carolina macular dystrophy is characterized by central macular defects that are present at birth but rarely progress. The fundus findings are highly variable and are usually more dramatic than expected from the visual acuity, which ranges from 20/40 to 20/200, with an average around 20/50. The clinical findings have been classified into different grades: In Grade I, fine drusen-like lesions at the level of the retinal pigmented epithelium are found in the central macular area. Grade II exhibits central confluent drusen with or without pigmentary changes, retinal pigment epithelium atrophy, disciform scar formation or neovascularization. Grade III is characterized by a well-delineated chorioretinal degeneration with hyperpigmentation at the border of the lesion. A central crater-like lesion that affects all retinal layers, as well as the deep choroidal tissue, is a typical finding. It is surrounded by an elevated ridge, which is 3-4 disc diameters size.  Color vision and electrophysiological testing are usually normal.

Some patients have choroidal neovascularization that may be responsive to anti-vascular endothelial growth factor treatment. 

Although first described in a 4 generation North Carolina family, it has since been found in a variety of ethnic groups and geographic locations.

Systemic Features: 

No general systemic manifestations are associated with North Carolina macular dystrophy.

Genetics

North Carolina macular dystrophy is an autosomal dominant disorder with high penetration.  One locus for the disorder, designated MCDR1 and containing a DNase 1 hypersensitivity site, has been mapped to 6q14-q16.2 and adversely impacts the retinal transcription factor gene PRDM13.  Multiple variants in this area have been identified.  However, other forms including MCDR2 (608051) resulting from mutations in PROM1 (4p15) and MCDR3 (608850) (linked to a locus at 5p13-p15) have been reported. 

The disorder was initially described in a family of Irish descent in North Carolina, and affected individuals have been identified in European, Asian and South American families as well.

Pedigree: 
Autosomal dominant
Treatment
Treatment Options: 

For patients with choroidal neovascularization, standard treatment for neovascularization may be used. Low vision aids can be useful for other forms of the disorder with decreased visual acuity.

References
Article Title: 

Macular Dystrophy, Vitelliform 2

Clinical Characteristics
Ocular Features: 

Best disease primarily affects the macular and paramacular areas.  The classical lesion resembles an egg yolk centered on the fovea.  Most patients, however, never exhibit the typical vitelliform lesion and may instead have normal maculae, or irregular yellowish deposits that may even be extrafoveal.  Histologically the RPE contains increased amounts of lipofuscin.  The ‘egg yolk’ is located beneath the neurosensory retina and the overlying retinal circulation often remains intact.  It can evolve into a ‘scrambled egg’ appearance and an apparent fluid level may be evident.  Some patients exhibit only RPE changes including hyper-  or hypopigmentation throughout the macula.  Choroidal neovasculariztion with hemorrhage leading to scarring and gliosis are uncommon but present a serious risk to vision.  The common end point for symptomatic patients is some degree of photoreceptor damage.

Until recently, most reports of Best macular dystrophy did not include genotypic data.  It is therefore difficult to classify families with variants of the disease, such as adult-onset or atypical vitelliform dystrophy but these at least suggest that this may be a heterogeneous disorder.  At the present time, the diagnosis should be reserved for those with an abnormal light-to-dark (Arden) ratio on electro-oculography and a mutation in the BEST1 gene. 

Visual function varies widely and has considerable fluctuation.   As many as 7-9 percent of patients are asymptomatic throughout life and few have vision loss to 20/200.  Many individuals maintain vision of 20/40 or better throughout life.  Some experience episodic acute vision loss to 20/80 or worse but often recover to at least 20/30.  It has been reported that as many as 76 per cent under the age of 40 retain 20/40 and 30 per cent retain this level of vision into the 5th and 6th decade of life.

Other ocular manifestations include hyperopia, esotropia, and, rarely, shallow anterior chambers with angle closure glaucoma.

Systemic Features: 

None have been reported.

Genetics

A mutation in the bestrophin gene (BEST1) located on chromosome 11 (11q13) is responsible for the disease in most patients.  Best disease is usually transmitted in an autosomal dominant pattern from parent to offspring.  A large number of mutations have been found in the BEST1 gene but so far no correlation with severity of disease is possible.  In fact, there is a great deal of clinical variation within families having identical mutations resembling that of the variation found among different mutations.

Several families have also been reported with autosomal recessive inheritance.  Affected offspring had homozygous mutations in the bestrophin gene with reduced light/dark responses and vision loss.  Some have atypical vitelliform retinal and sometimes multifocal lesions.  They may develop angle closure glaucoma.  Their heterozygous parents  have either normal or abnormal EOGs and no visible fundus disease.  So far no families with presumed recessive inheritance of Best macular dystrophy have demonstrated parent-to-child transmission of typical vitelliform lesions.

Genotyping has identified at least 5 forms of vitelliform macular dystrophy.  In addition to the iconic Best disease described here we know of at least four more variants and specific mutations have been identified in three.  No mutation or locus has yet been identified in VMD1 (153840) but it is likely a unique condition since mutations in other genes known to cause vitelliform dystrophy have been ruled out.  Other forms are VMD3 (608161) due to mutations in the PRPH2 gene, VMD4 (616151) resulting from mutations in the IMPG1 gene, and VMD5 (616152) caused by mutations in the IMPG2 gene.

Autosomal dominant vitreoretinochoroidopathy (193220) is an allelic disorder.

Pedigree: 
Autosomal dominant
Autosomal recessive
Treatment
Treatment Options: 

None known for disease.  Subretinal neovascularization may benefit from ablation treatments.

References
Article Title: 

Mutations in IMPG1 Cause Vitelliform Macular Dystrophies. Am

Manes G, Meunier I, Avila-Fern?degndez A, Banfi S, Le Meur G, Zanlonghi X, Corton M, Simonelli F, Brabet P, Labesse G, Audo I, Mohand-Said S, Zeitz C, Sahel JA, Weber M, Dollfus H, Dhaenens CM, Allorge D, De Baere E, Koenekoop RK, Kohl S, Cremers FP, Hollyfield JG, S?(c)n?(c)chal A, Hebrard M, Bocquet B, Garc??a CA, Hamel CP. Mutations in IMPG1 Cause Vitelliform Macular Dystrophies. Am J Hum Genet. 2013 Aug 29. [Epub ahead of print] PubMed PMID: 23993198.

PubMed ID: 
23993198

Biallelic mutation of BEST1 causes a distinct retinopathy in humans

Burgess R, Millar ID, Leroy BP, Urquhart JE, Fearon IM, De Baere E, Brown PD, Robson AG, Wright GA, Kestelyn P, Holder GE, Webster AR, Manson FD, Black GC. Biallelic mutation of BEST1 causes a distinct retinopathy in humans. Am J Hum Genet. 2008 Jan;82(1):19-31. PubMed PMID: 18179881

PubMed ID: 
18179881

Identification of the gene responsible for Best macular dystrophy

Petrukhin K, Koisti MJ, Bakall B, Li W, Xie G, Marknell T, Sandgren O, Forsman K, Holmgren G, Andreasson S, Vujic M, Bergen AA, McGarty-Dugan V, Figueroa D, Austin CP, Metzker ML, Caskey CT, Wadelius C. Identification of the gene responsible for Best macular dystrophy. Nat Genet. 1998 Jul;19(3):241-7.

PubMed ID: 
9662395

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