hyperreflexia

Spastic Paraplegia 5A

Clinical Characteristics
Ocular Features: 

Gaze-evoked nystagmus and saccadic pursuit movements are present in about 10% of patients.  Optic atrophy was reported in one individual.  Rare patients have been reported to have cataracts.  

Systemic Features: 

This is a progressive disorder of neurological deterioration.  Age of onset (mean 16.4 years) and rate of neurological dysfunction are highly variable.  Gait difficulties are the most common presenting signs.  Some gait ataxia is usually present.  The lower limbs are more severely affected by spasticity and weakness and walking is often delayed with difficulty running and clumsiness in childhood.  Some patients (38%) are wheelchair-bound after disease duration of more than 33 years.  Dysphagia and dysarthria are uncommon. 

Some sensory impairments such as impaired vibratory sense, decreased proprioception, and absent touch sensation in the lower extremities are frequently present.  Urge incontinence of bladder and rectum is sometimes a feature.

Genetics

Bialllelic mutations in the CYP7B1 gene (8q12.3) have been identified in this disorder resulting in a marked accumulation of neurotoxic oxysterols in plasma and CSF.

Pedigree: 
Autosomal recessive
Treatment
Treatment Options: 

No effective treatment for the general disorder has been reported.

References
Article Title: 

Hereditary spastic paraplegia type 5: natural history, biomarkers and a randomized controlled trial

Schols L, Rattay TW, Martus P, Meisner C, Baets J, Fischer I, Jagle C, Fraidakis MJ, Martinuzzi A, Saute JA, Scarlato M, Antenora A, Stendel C, Hoflinger P, Lourenco CM, Abreu L, Smets K, Paucar M, Deconinck T, Bis DM, Wiethoff S, Bauer P, Arnoldi A, Marques W, Jardim LB, Hauser S, Criscuolo C, Filla A, Zuchner S, Bassi MT, Klopstock T, De Jonghe P, Bjorkhem I, Schule R. Hereditary spastic paraplegia type 5: natural history, biomarkers and a randomized controlled trial. Brain. 2017 Dec 1;140(12):3112-3127.

PubMed ID: 
29126212

CYP7B1 mutations in pure and complex forms of hereditary spastic paraplegia type 5

Goizet C, Boukhris A, Durr A, Beetz C, Truchetto J, Tesson C, Tsaousidou M, Forlani S, Guyant-Marechal L, Fontaine B, Guimaraes J, Isidor B, Chazouilleres O, Wendum D, Grid D, Chevy F, Chinnery PF, Coutinho P, Azulay JP, Feki I, Mochel F, Wolf C, Mhiri C, Crosby A, Brice A, Stevanin G. CYP7B1 mutations in pure and complex forms of hereditary spastic paraplegia type 5. Brain. 2009 Jun;132(Pt 6):1589-600.

PubMed ID: 
19439420

Epileptic Encephalopathy, Early Infantile 58

Clinical Characteristics
Ocular Features: 

Infants are noted early to have poor fixation and visual following of targets.  Optic nerve hypoplasia is evident on brain MRIs.

Systemic Features: 

Epilepsy and development delay are hallmarks of this condition.  The seizures are of multiple types and have their onset in the first year of life.  The EEG often shows diffuse slowing, multifocal spikes and hypsarrhythmia.  These are often difficult to control.  Severe intellectual disability is usually present.  Feeding difficulties are evident early and slow growth is common.  Hypotonia is common but hyperreflexia and spasticity are also reported.

Brain MRIs show delayed or reduced myelination.  Acquired microcephaly is often seen.

Genetics

De novo heterozygous mutations in the NTRK2 gene (9p21.33) have been found in 4 unrelated individuals.

Pedigree: 
Autosomal dominant
Treatment
Treatment Options: 

No treatment has been reported.

References
Article Title: 

High Rate of Recurrent De Novo Mutations in Developmental and Epileptic Encephalopathies

Hamdan FF, Myers CT, Cossette P, Lemay P, Spiegelman D, Laporte AD, Nassif C, Diallo O, Monlong J, Cadieux-Dion M, Dobrzeniecka S, Meloche C, Retterer K, Cho MT, Rosenfeld JA, Bi W, Massicotte C, Miguet M, Brunga L, Regan BM, Mo K, Tam C, Schneider A, Hollingsworth G; Deciphering Developmental Disorders Study, FitzPatrick DR, Donaldson A, Canham N, Blair E, Kerr B, Fry AE, Thomas RH, Shelagh J, Hurst JA, Brittain H, Blyth M, Lebel RR, Gerkes EH, Davis-Keppen L, Stein Q, Chung WK, Dorison SJ, Benke PJ, Fassi E, Corsten-Janssen N, Kamsteeg EJ, Mau-Them FT, Bruel AL, Verloes A, Ounap K, Wojcik MH, Albert DVF, Venkateswaran S, Ware T, Jones D, Liu YC, Mohammad SS, Bizargity P, Bacino CA, Leuzzi V, Martinelli S, Dallapiccola B, Tartaglia M, Blumkin L, Wierenga KJ, Purcarin G, O'Byrne JJ, Stockler S, Lehman A, Keren B, Nougues MC, Mignot C, Auvin S, Nava C, Hiatt SM, Bebin M, Shao Y, Scaglia F, Lalani SR, Frye RE, Jarjour IT, Jacques S, Boucher RM, Riou E, Srour M, Carmant L, Lortie A, Major P, Diadori P, Dubeau F, D'Anjou G, Bourque G, Berkovic SF, Sadleir LG, Campeau PM, Kibar Z, Lafreniere RG, Girard SL, Mercimek-Mahmutoglu S, Boelman C, Rouleau GA, Scheffer IE, Mefford HC, Andrade DM, Rossignol E, Minassian BA, Michaud JL. High Rate of Recurrent De Novo Mutations in Developmental and Epileptic Encephalopathies. Am J Hum Genet. 2017 Nov 2;101(5):664-685.

 

PubMed ID: 
291000083

Combined Oxidative Phosphorylation Deficiency 32

Clinical Characteristics
Ocular Features: 

Ocular signs are common but variable.  Patients may not make eye contact and sometimes have disconjugate eye movements.  Strabismus (usually exotropia) and nystagmus or often present.

Systemic Features: 

Six patients from 4 unrelated families of mixed ethnic backgrounds have been reported.  Infants within the first 4 to 6 months of life had evidence of developmental delay and neurodevelopmental regression.  Poor feeding and breathing difficulties are often noted in this period.  Other later signs are axial hypotonia, abnormal movements such as tremor, spasticity, hyperkinetic movements, dystonia with eventual regression of milestones.  Joint contractures and kyphoscoliosis may develop. 

Microcephaly was noted in several infants and brain imaging in all patients reveals abnormal T2- weighted signals in the brainstem and specifically in the basal ganglia.  Decreased activity in muscle mitochondrial respiratory complexes I, III, and IV has been documented.  Lactate may be increased in serum and the CSF.  Postmortem studies show brain vascular proliferation and gliosis in basal structures.

Genetics

Homozygous or compound heterozygous mutations in MRPS34 (16p13.3) are the basis for this disorder.

Pedigree: 
Autosomal recessive
Treatment
Treatment Options: 

No treatment has been reported.

References
Article Title: 

Biallelic Mutations in MRPS34 Lead to Instability of the Small Mitoribosomal Subunit and Leigh Syndrome

Lake NJ, Webb BD, Stroud DA, Richman TR, Ruzzenente B, Compton AG, Mountford HS, Pulman J, Zangarelli C, Rio M, Bodaert N, Assouline Z, Sherpa MD, Schadt EE, Houten SM, Byrnes J, McCormick EM, Zolkipli-Cunningham Z, Haude K, Zhang Z, Retterer K, Bai R, Calvo SE, Mootha VK, Christodoulou J, Rotig A, Filipovska A, Cristian I, Falk MJ, Metodiev MD, Thorburn DR. Biallelic Mutations in MRPS34 Lead to Instability of the Small Mitoribosomal Subunit and Leigh Syndrome. Am J Hum Genet. 2017 Aug 3;101(2):239-254.

PubMed ID: 
28777931

Spastic Ataxia 8, Autosomal Recessive, with Hypomyelinating Leukodystrophy

Clinical Characteristics
Ocular Features: 

Reported ocular signs are limited to abnormal eye movements.  In other forms of spastic ataxia, nystagmus is evident in association with optic atrophy but no fundus examinations are reported in the 3 families with SPAX8.  Hypometric saccades and limited upgaze have also been found in these families.

Systemic Features: 

First signs and symptoms occur sometime in the first 5 years of life and often in the first year.   In 6 of 7 reported patients the presenting sign was nystagmus but one individual with reported onset of disease at age 5 years presented with ataxia.  Cerebellar signs, both truncal and limb, are usually present and the majority of individuals have evidence of dystonia.  Likewise, pyramidal signs are nearly always present.  Cerebellar dysarthria and titubation are often present with dystonic posturing and torticollis. 

Brain MRIs usually reveal cerebellar atrophy and widespread hypomyelination.  Two individuals in a single family had severe global psychomotor delays as well.  No sensory deficits were reported.  This disorder is progressive and patients in adulthood may require the use of a wheelchair.

Genetics

Homozygous mutations in the NKX6-2 (NKX6-2) gene (10q26.3) are responsible for this disorder.

Pedigree: 
Autosomal recessive
Treatment
Treatment Options: 

No treatment has been reported for the general condition.

References
Article Title: 

Mutations in NKX6-2 Cause Progressive Spastic Ataxia and Hypomyelination

Chelban V, Patel N, Vandrovcova J, Zanetti MN, Lynch DS, Ryten M, Botia JA, Bello O, Tribollet E, Efthymiou S, Davagnanam I; SYNAPSE Study Group, Bashiri FA, Wood NW, Rothman JE, Alkuraya FS, Houlden H. Mutations in NKX6-2 Cause Progressive Spastic Ataxia and Hypomyelination. Am J Hum Genet. 2017 Jun 1;100(6):969-977.

PubMed ID: 
28575651

Spastic Paraplegia, Intellectual Disability, Nystagmus, and Obesity

Clinical Characteristics
Ocular Features: 

Patients have deep-set eyes with nystagmus, reduced vision, and often an esotropia perhaps secondary to hypermetropia.  In one of 3 reported patients the optic discs were described pale.

Systemic Features: 

Prominent foreheads are present at birth along with full cheeks and a prominent forehead.  Children grow rapidly in the first year eventually reaching the 90th percentiles in weight, height, and head circumference although neurologically they are developmentally delayed.  Speech and walking may be delayed as well.  While limbs have increased tone together with hyperreflexia, the trunk exhibits hypotonia.

Brain imaging reveals delayed myelination, dilated lateral ventricles, reduced while matter, and cerebral atrophy.

Genetics

Heterozygous mutations in the KIDINS220 gene (2p25.1) have been identified in 3 unrelated patients.

Pedigree: 
Autosomal dominant
Treatment
Treatment Options: 

No treatment has been reported.

References
Article Title: 

Heterozygous KIDINS220/ARMS nonsense variants cause spastic paraplegia, intellectual disability, nystagmus, and obesity

Josifova DJ, Monroe GR, Tessadori F, de Graaff E, van der Zwaag B, Mehta SG; DDD Study., Harakalova M, Duran KJ, Savelberg SM, Nijman IJ, Jungbluth H, Hoogenraad CC, Bakkers J, Knoers NV, Firth HV, Beales PL, van Haaften G, van Haelst MM. Heterozygous KIDINS220/ARMS nonsense variants cause spastic paraplegia, intellectual disability, nystagmus, and obesity. Hum Mol Genet. 2016 Jun 1;25(11):2158-2167.

PubMed ID: 
27005418

Neurodegeneration with Ataxia, Dystonia, and Gaze Palsy, Childhood-Onset

Clinical Characteristics
Ocular Features: 

Vertical gaze palsy has its onset between 7 and 15 years of age.   Nystagmus and oculomotor apraxia are often present.

Systemic Features: 

Onset of unsteadiness, gait ataxia, and cognitive decline are evident in the first or second decades of life.  Dysdiadokinesis, dysarthria, dysmetria, dystonia, athetotic movements, signs of Parkinsonism with tremor may also be present.  Some patients have a mild hearing loss.  Tissue from muscle biopsies are normal.  Brain imaging reveals cerebellar atrophy in some families and iron deposition in the basal ganglia in others.

Many patients are wheelchair-bound eventually.

Genetics

Homozygous mutations in the SQSTM1 gene (5q35.3) are responsible for this condition. 

Pedigree: 
Autosomal recessive
Treatment
Treatment Options: 

No treatment has been reported but physical therapy, speech therapy, and special education may be of benefit.

References
Article Title: 

Absence of the Autophagy Adaptor SQSTM1/p62 Causes Childhood-Onset Neurodegeneration with Ataxia, Dystonia, and Gaze Palsy

Haack TB, Ignatius E, Calvo-Garrido J, Iuso A, Isohanni P, Maffezzini C, Lonnqvist T, Suomalainen A, Gorza M, Kremer LS, Graf E, Hartig M, Berutti R, Paucar M, Svenningsson P, Stranneheim H, Brandberg G, Wedell A, Kurian MA, Hayflick SA, Venco P, Tiranti V, Strom TM, Dichgans M, Horvath R, Holinski-Feder E, Freyer C, Meitinger T, Prokisch H, Senderek J, Wredenberg A, Carroll CJ, Klopstock T. Absence of the Autophagy Adaptor SQSTM1/p62 Causes Childhood-Onset Neurodegeneration with Ataxia, Dystonia, and Gaze Palsy. Am J Hum Genet. 2016 Sep 1;99(3):735-43.

PubMed ID: 
27545679

Encephalopathy Due To Defective Mitochondrial And Peroxisomal Fission 2

Clinical Characteristics
Ocular Features: 

Visual impairment and optic atrophy are usually present.  Visual-evoked potentials may be negative or slowed severely.  Some degree of ophthalmoparesis is often present while frank external ophthalmoplegia can develop in the second year of life.  In one patient aged 7 years, MRI showed increased T2 signals in the optic radiation.

Systemic Features: 

Microcephaly becomes evident in the first year of life and seizures can appear in this period as well.  General developmental delays are present.  There may be evidence of Leigh-like basal ganglia disease.  Dysphagia may require the placement of a gastroscopy tube.  Truncal hypotonia can be so severe that sitting and head control are not possible.  However, there is often spasticity and hyperreflexia in the limbs.  EEG recordings show hypsarrhythmia.

Brain MRI may show increased T2 signaling in the global pallidus, thalamus, and the subthalamic nucleus.

Patients may never be able to sit or walk and usually do not develop speech.  

Genetics

Homozygous or compound heterozygous truncating mutations in the MFF gene (mitochondrial fission factor) (2q36.3) is responsible for this condition.  Patients with EMPF2 may have abnormally elongated and tubular mitochondria and peroxisomes in fibroblasts.

Pedigree: 
Autosomal recessive
Treatment
Treatment Options: 

No treatment is available for the general disorder.  Gastrostomy tubes may be required to maintain adequate nutrition.  Airway hygiene is important.  Respiratory complications can be a factor in the early demise of children.

References
Article Title: 

Heart and Brain Malformation Syndrome

Clinical Characteristics
Ocular Features: 

Microphthalmia is the cardinal ocular malformation.  Hypertelorism has been described.  Poor vision without further description has also been reported.   

Systemic Features: 

The ears are low-set, malformed, and posteriorly rotated.  The forehead is prominent and there is usually a wide anterior fontanel.  The nasal bridge is wide and frequently depressed while the lower lip is full and may be everted and split.  The palate is highly arched.  Physical growth is slow.  A ventricular septal defect is often present while the valves are hypoplastic and the aortic arch can be interrupted.

Microcephaly is often present and there may a profound delay in psychomotor development with truncal hypotonia and hyperreflexia in the limbs.   Brain imaging shows generalized atrophy with decreased myelination.  Cerebellar vermis hypoplasia has been reported.  Two of 5 patients were reported to have Dandy-Walker malformations, and a thin corpus callosum.  Seizures may occur.

Genetics

Homozygous mutations in the SMG9 gene (19q13.31) are responsible for this condition so far reported in 5 individuals in two unrelated consanguineous Arab families.

Pedigree: 
Autosomal recessive
Treatment
Treatment Options: 

No treatment has been reported.

References
Article Title: 

Mutations in SMG9, Encoding an Essential Component of Nonsense-Mediated Decay Machinery, Cause a Multiple Congenital Anomaly Syndrome in Humans and Mice

Shaheen R, Anazi S, Ben-Omran T, Seidahmed MZ, Caddle LB, Palmer K, Ali R, Alshidi T, Hagos S, Goodwin L, Hashem M, Wakil SM, Abouelhoda M, Colak D, Murray SA, Alkuraya FS. Mutations in SMG9, Encoding an Essential Component of Nonsense-Mediated Decay Machinery, Cause a Multiple Congenital Anomaly Syndrome in Humans and Mice. Am J Hum Genet. 2016 Apr 7;98(4):643-52.

PubMed ID: 
27018474

Spinocerebellar Ataxia 42

Clinical Characteristics
Ocular Features: 

 Saccadic eye movements with nystagmus and diplopia have been reported (7 of 10 reported patients).

Systemic Features: 

Cerebellar signs usually have their onset in midlife or later with slow progression.  Most patients are mildly to moderately disabled.  Dysarthria, dysphagia, and a spastic gait are experienced by the majority of individuals.  Hyperreflexia and a positive Babinski sign are commonly presently.  Mild cognitive impairment and depression have been seen in a minority of patients.

Brain MRIs show cerebellar hemispheric and vermian atrophy.  The cerebral cortex appeared histologically normal in one deceased patient.

Genetics

This disorder is caused by heterozygous mutations in the CACNA1G gene (17q21.33).

Pedigree: 
Autosomal dominant
Treatment
Treatment Options: 

No treatment has been reported.

References
Article Title: 

Leukodystrophy, Hypomyelinating, 13

Clinical Characteristics
Ocular Features: 

Several individuals in one family have been observed with optic atrophy, nystagmus and visual impairment.

Systemic Features: 

Head circumference is normal at birth but later in childhood falls behind in growth.  Neurodevelopment seems to plateau without regression.  Feeding difficulties may be present from birth and may require gastroscopy tube placement.  Motor skills are delayed and expressive language may never develop.  General irritability and increased muscle tone with hyperreflexia are usually present eventually resulting in joint contractures. 

EEGs , electromyography, and nerve conduction studies have been normal in 3 patients.  A brain MRI in one patient showed a leukodystrophic pattern in periventricular areas.  Variable cardiac malfunctions such as heart failure, LVH, and pericarditis were observed in several patients.

Sudden death following a short febrile illness has been reported to occur in three of the six affected children before the age of 15 years. 

Genetics

Homozygous mutations in the C11ORF73 gene (11q14.2) are responsible for this disorder.  Three unrelated families of Ashkenazi Jewish descent have been reported.

Pedigree: 
Autosomal recessive
Treatment
Treatment Options: 

No effective treatment has been reported.

References
Article Title: 

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